Explanatory Strain and the Re‑internalisation of the Experiment

Think again about the experiment with two holes… might we regard the whole double‑slit experiment and the electron — all of the electrons? — as part of a single quantum system? Maybe the electron knows which holes are open because the state of the holes is also part of the state of the electron.

— John Gribbin, Six Impossible Things, pp. 24–25

At the close of his chapter on entanglement, Gribbin returns to the two‑slit experiment. On the surface, this feels like a gesture of consolidation: the chapter’s conceptual machinery is being brought back to bear on the experiment that opened the book. But the passage is doing something more revealing. It stages, in miniature, a moment of near‑coherence — and then performs a rapid ontological retreat.

That movement is worth examining carefully, because it exemplifies a distinctive form of explanatory strain.

A moment of relational clarity

Gribbin begins by asking whether the whole experimental arrangement might be treated as a single quantum system. This is not a trivial suggestion. It acknowledges, however briefly, that what is observed in the two‑slit experiment cannot be attributed to the electron alone. The configuration of holes matters; the experimental setup matters; the phenomenon depends on how the situation is arranged.

At this point, the familiar object‑centred picture wobbles. The electron no longer looks like a self‑contained bearer of hidden properties. The experiment itself begins to appear as the relevant unit of analysis.

For a moment, the mystery loosens its grip.

The recoil

But Gribbin does not stay there. Almost immediately, the apparent relational insight is pulled back inside the electron:

Maybe the electron knows which holes are open because the state of the holes is also part of the state of the electron.

This sentence performs a decisive reversal. What had briefly been allowed to stand as an external configuration — the arrangement of the apparatus — is re‑described as an internal feature of the particle. The relation is not permitted to remain a relation. It must be absorbed.

The experiment is acknowledged only on the condition that it can be re‑internalised.

Why this move feels natural

This recoil is not a personal failing on Gribbin’s part. It reflects a deep background commitment shared by most mainstream interpretations: that explanations ultimately take the form of what the thing is like. If the setup matters, then — on this view — it must matter by being represented somewhere, typically as part of the system’s state.

Relations, on this picture, are tolerable only insofar as they can be redescribed as internal structure.

The cost of refusing this move would be high. If the state of the electron does not already encode the experimental context, then the electron ceases to be a well‑defined object with determinate properties. And that, for much of the interpretive tradition, is a bridge too far.

The explanatory strain

The strain arises because Gribbin is pulled in two incompatible directions at once:

• The phenomenon plainly depends on the experimental configuration.

• The ontology he is working with permits explanations only in terms of particle states.

The result is a conceptual oscillation. The experiment is briefly allowed to matter — and then it is collapsed back into the electron, as if relation itself were intolerable unless it could be internalised.

This oscillation keeps the mystery alive. The electron still appears to “know” something it should not know. The explanatory pressure is merely displaced, not relieved.

A relational alternative

From a relational ontological perspective, the retreat is unnecessary. The experimental setup need not be treated as a state of the electron at all. It belongs to the structured potential within which particular phenomena are actualised. What appears on the screen is not the manifestation of an electron carrying encoded information about holes, but the instantiation of a particular construal — a perspectival cut through a field of possibilities.

Nothing needs to be hidden inside the particle. Nothing needs to travel. Nothing needs to know.

The central mystery dissolves not through new dynamics or exotic connections, but by refusing the demand that relations be re‑described as properties of things.

What this passage reveals

Gribbin’s closing gesture is revealing precisely because it almost escapes the problem it seeks to explain. The moment he acknowledges the relevance of the experimental configuration, the mystery begins to thin. The moment he re‑internalises that configuration into the electron, it returns in full force.

The explanatory strain here is not accidental. It is the visible trace of an ontology straining to accommodate relations without letting them be fundamental.

Seen in this light, the passage does not deepen the mystery of the quantum world. It quietly exposes where the mystery is being manufactured.

Explanatory Strain: Quantum Teleportation — What Is (and Isn’t) Transferred

Gribbin introduces quantum teleportation with language that is both vivid and reassuring:

“Quantum teleportation…rests on the now experimentally proven fact that if two quantum entities, such as two photons, are entangled then no matter how far apart they are, what happens to one of them affects the other. In effect, they are separate parts of a single quantum entity. … But by tweaking one photon in a certain way, it is possible to change the second photon into an exact copy…of the first photon, while the state of the first photon is scrambled up. In effect, the first photon has been teleported to the location of the second photon. … The teleportation conveys information, but it requires both a ‘quantum channel’ and a ‘classical channel’.”

Once again, the exposition is careful by popular standards — and once again, the care itself stabilises a set of misleading intuitions. The strain here is not flamboyant paradox but process metaphysics quietly reintroduced under the banner of communication.

1. “What happens to one affects the other”

The claim that “what happens to one affects the other” immediately reinstates a causal narrative. Something occurs here; something else is altered there. But as with entanglement generally, nothing happens to the second photon as a result of the first. There is no influence propagating, no modification transmitted. What exists is a structured potential governing joint outcomes. Measurement instantiates one cut of that potential, not a causal chain.

The phrase reassures the reader by gesturing toward ordinary notions of influence, even while insisting no faster-than-light signalling occurs. The reassurance comes at the cost of conceptual clarity.

2. “Separate parts of a single quantum entity”

This formulation tries to make entanglement intuitive by reifying the system-as-pair into a single extended thing. But this again invites process thinking: if the photons are parts of one thing, then something done to one part might naturally change another part.

Relational ontology does not require this picture. The entangled system is not a spatially distributed object; it is a system-as-theory, a structured potential constraining admissible joint instantiations. Treating it as a stretched object encourages precisely the causal intuitions that later need to be denied.

3. Teleportation as transfer

Gribbin is careful to note that teleportation is not duplication and that the original state is “scrambled.” But the dominant metaphor remains one of transfer: the state of the first photon is said to end up at the location of the second. This invites the image of something moving — information, state, essence — even while the text insists that nothing travels faster than light.

From a relational perspective, nothing is transferred. One instantiation is replaced by another, under constraints fixed by the entangled potential and the classical information exchanged. The dramatic term “teleportation” names a coordination of instantiations, not the movement of a thing.

4. Channels and completion

The insistence that teleportation “has to be completed” via a classical channel is meant to rescue locality. But it also reinforces the idea that teleportation is a process unfolding in time, with intermediate stages and completion conditions.

In relational terms, what matters is not completion but consistency: the perspectival actualisation of outcomes that jointly satisfy the structured potential. The classical channel does not finish a transfer; it supplies part of the construal that makes a particular instantiation intelligible.

Diagnosis

Quantum teleportation, as described here, continues the pattern of explanatory strain:

• structural constraints are narrated as causal effects,

• instantiation is narrated as transfer,

• and coordination is narrated as communication.

The result is a phenomenon that sounds miraculous but must then be carefully hedged to avoid violating relativity. Relational ontology dissolves the miracle and the hedge together: nothing is sent, nothing moves, nothing is duplicated. There is a structured potential, multiple perspectival cuts, and classical coordination that makes a particular instantiation possible.

Placed after the Bell’s theorem posts, this discussion shows how explanatory strain shifts from metaphysical paradox to technological wonder — while relying on the same underlying narrative habits.

Explanatory Strain: Bell’s Theorem and the Universe

Following our discussion of the false choice between reality and locality, Gribbin immediately escalates the stakes:

“Although the jumping-off point for Bell's Theorem was an attempt to understand quantum physics…these results do not apply only to quantum physics. They apply to the world — the Universe. Whether or not you think that quantum physics might one day be replaced as a description of how the world works, this will not change things. The experiments show that local reality does not apply to the Universe.”

At first glance, this sounds decisive and awe-inspiring. But a careful reading reveals multiple forms of explanatory strain, now deployed at the level of scope and universality.

1. Scope inflation

The experimental results concern specific entangled systems under controlled conditions. By claiming they apply to “the Universe,” the text stretches formal results far beyond their domain. This rhetorical leap gives the impression that the formal violation of local realism is a cosmic fact, rather than a feature of particular relational structures instantiated in experiments. Relational ontology makes this clear: the structured potential and its instantiations exist within the context that defines them, and there is no necessity to extrapolate universally.

2. The illusion of inevitability

“Whether or not you think that quantum physics might one day be replaced…this will not change things.”

This sentence frames the conclusions as independent of theory, producing a sense of unassailable certainty. It obscures that intelligibility arises from the structure of the system and the rules for instantiation, not from a universal, theory-independent dictate. Relational ontology replaces this pseudo-absolutism with system-relative constraints that are actualised perspectivally.

3. Dramatisation of non-locality

“The experiments show that local reality does not apply to the Universe.”

Here, local reality is globalised, giving the reader the impression that the cosmos itself behaves paradoxically. In reality, Bell inequalities constrain correlations in the measured system; they do not mandate any absolute cosmic non-locality. From a relational ontology perspective, locality and actualisation are perspectival properties, and the violation of classical expectations is intelligible without invoking universal paradox.

4. Diagnosis

Gribbin’s universalisation is a textbook example of explanatory strain: the drama of the formal result is amplified through language and scope. By extrapolating from specific entangled systems to the entire Universe and presenting outcomes as inevitable, the narrative heightens the sense of mystery. The phenomena themselves do not require such awe; the sense of cosmic paradox is imported by our representational habits.

Placed after the previous post on Bell’s theorem, this post functions as a diagnostic continuation, showing how explanatory strain escalates through rhetorical amplification, setting the stage for a relational-ontology framing in which correlations are structural, instantiations are perspectival, and no cosmic paradox arises.

Explanatory Strain: Bell’s Theorem and the False Choice of Reality vs. Locality

John Gribbin introduces Bell’s theorem in chapter 2 with a classic statement of the apparent quantum paradox:

“'Reality' is the idea that there is a real world that exists whether or not anyone is looking at it, or measuring it. … If quantum mechanics is correct, Bell's Inequality must be violated. You can have a real world, with spooky action at a distance. Or you can have locality, at the cost of saying that nothing is real unless it is observed.”

At first glance, this is a clear, concise framing of the stakes. But a closer look reveals explanatory strain at work, in ways that echo our earlier discussions of the two-slit experiment and entanglement.

1. Loaded metaphors

The phrases “spooky action at a distance” and “nothing is real unless it is observed” are metaphorical shortcuts. They import classical intuitions about influence, causality, and temporality into a situation where they are not required. The language dramatises correlations between measurements, turning structural constraints into an apparent metaphysical crisis.

2. False dichotomy

Gribbin frames Bell’s theorem as forcing a choice: either accept faster-than-light influences or deny observer-independent reality. This is a binary that doesn’t actually exist in the formalism. The underlying correlations are structural: they constrain the possible joint outcomes of measurements. No influence needs to propagate between particles, and no reality needs to be suspended until observed. The drama is created by our representational habits, not by the system itself.

3. Temporal and causal slippage

“Spooky action” implies a temporal process: one measurement affecting another instantaneously. “Nothing is real unless observed” implies that observation creates reality. Both are narratives projected onto events that are fundamentally instantiations of structured potential, not sequential processes. The tension arises from trying to describe these instantiations using familiar temporal-causal intuition.

4. Ontological smuggling

By defining “reality” as observer-independent, the passage preserves the classical assumption that there is a hidden substrate. Relational ontology dissolves the supposed paradox: the “impossible choice” only appears impossible if reality is demanded to exist independently of construal. In fact, the correlations are intelligible as constraints on potential, and actualisation occurs perspectivally at measurement.

Diagnosis

This short passage exemplifies explanatory strain: classical intuitions about reality, locality, and temporal causation are imported via language to dramatise the correlations predicted by quantum mechanics. The paradox is not in the phenomena, but in how the phenomena are described. Recognising this prepares the reader for a relational-ontology framing in which the correlations are structural, the instantiations are perspectival, and no spooky action is required.

Placed between the “electrons that decide” posts and the deeper technical discussion to follow, this post functions as a diagnostic hinge: it shows how explanatory strain manifests in the discussion of Bell’s theorem and primes the reader to see structural correlations without imagining metaphysical crises.

Explanatory Strain and Entanglement: 4 Instantiation and Entanglement

We have now cleared the ground: the metaphor of electrons that “decide,” the pseudo-temporal framing of A influencing B, and the illusion of coordination across space have all been examined and shown to be explanatory strains. What remains is the positive account using relational ontology.

In this framework, the entangled electron pair is a structured potential. The joint spin states define the space of possible outcomes: each measurement is an instantiation, a perspectival cut through this structured potential. There is no process by which one electron informs or alters the other. The anti-correlation is not produced by communication; it is encoded in the system-as-theory that governs what counts as possible events.

Superposition describes potential, not indecision. Each electron does not “decide” upon measurement; each measurement actualises an outcome consistent with the constraints of the entangled state. The outcomes are intelligible only in relation to the potential that defines them; their correlation is a consequence of the structure, not of causal influence or temporal sequence.

Viewed this way, entanglement loses its aura of paradox. The so-called “spooky action at a distance” is not a physical process but a reflection of how we tend to misapply familiar causal and temporal intuitions to situations governed by structured potential. Measurement events instantiate potential; correlations are constraints; no mysterious signalling is needed.

Entanglement, like the two-slit experiment, teaches a broader lesson: the appearance of mystery arises when patterns or correlations are explained in terms of events alone. Relational ontology provides the corrective: systems are theories of potential, and individual events are perspectival actualisations of that potential.

Once this shift is made, entanglement is no longer spooky—it is a compelling illustration of how structure informs what can occur, not a challenge to locality or causality. The electrons never communicate; they simply instantiate the constraints that define their joint potential.

Explanatory Strain and Entanglement: 3 Correlations Are Not Built

Following our discussion of temporal smuggling, we now turn to the broader pattern of entangled outcomes. A familiar intuition arises: it seems as though electrons are somehow coordinating their spins across space to ensure perfect anti-correlation. This is often dramatised in terms like “spooky action at a distance” or imagined as one particle communicating with the other. But this intuition is misleading.

The correlation is a property of the system-as-pair, not a property of sequential events. Each electron measurement is an independent instantiation of the joint structured potential defined by the entangled state. No electron modifies or influences the other; no signals are sent; nothing accumulates in the world beyond individual detection events.

Describing correlations as being “built” or “produced” by electrons introduces the same explanatory error we saw with interference patterns in the two-slit experiment. Patterns in the outcomes do not require communication or coordination; they emerge from the constraints encoded in the structure of the system itself. Each detection event simply actualises one of the allowed outcomes, and the regularity we observe across many measurements is a reflection of the structured potential, not a cumulative process of influence.

Thinking otherwise leads to conceptual confusion: it makes the phenomenon appear paradoxical, requiring faster-than-light signals or retrocausal effects. Recognising that correlations are constraints on possible joint outcomes, rather than messages exchanged between particles, dissolves the mystery.

In the next post, we will introduce the relational ontology perspective fully: measurement events as perspectival cuts, superpositions as structured potential, and how this framing explains entanglement without invoking hidden coordination or mysterious action at a distance.

Explanatory Strain and Entanglement: 2 Temporal Smuggling in Entanglement

In the previous post, we examined the metaphor of electrons that "decide" their spin. Here, we focus on the temporal structure implied by that metaphor, and why it is a classic example of explanatory strain.

Gribbin writes that “at the moment electron A 'decides' to be spin up, electron B must be spin down, no matter how far apart the two electrons are.” This phrasing introduces a subtle but consequential temporal narrative: electron A acts first, electron B responds instantaneously. The appearance of cause-and-effect across space seems undeniable, but the temporal framing is misleading.

The correlation between entangled electrons is not the result of a sequence of actions. No electron waits for the other to act, and no information is transmitted between them. The “moment” in which electron A chooses is a human-centric way of narrating what is actually a constraint on joint outcomes. By translating a structural constraint into a temporal story, the explanation smuggles in the familiar logic of causal interaction: something happens first, something else reacts.

This pseudo-temporal framing encourages a kind of explanatory anxiety: how could the second electron know what the first has done without violating relativity? The mystery feels real because the narrative imposes a temporal sequence that the phenomena themselves do not require.

What is really happening is simpler: the system of two entangled electrons defines a structured potential for joint spin outcomes. Each measurement event is an instantiation of that potential. The correlation is encoded in the structure; it is not a causal signal or decision transmitted in time. Once this distinction is recognised, there is no need to imagine electron B being influenced by electron A, or to worry about faster-than-light communication. The “spooky action” dissolves as a product of our explanatory language, not as a physical requirement.

In the next post, we will look at the broader pattern of correlations: why it seems as though electrons are coordinating their behaviour across space, and why this pattern does not entail any form of communication or joint causation.

Explanatory Strain and Entanglement: 1 Electrons Do Not ‘Decide’

“But the equations say that at the time that the electrons are emitted from their source, they do not have a definite spin. Each of them exists in what is called a superposition, a mixture of up and down states, and the electron only 'decides' what spin to settle into, in accordance with the rules of probability, when it interacts with something else. The point Einstein seized upon is that if the electrons must have opposite spin, at the moment electron A 'decides' to be spin up, electron B must be spin down, no matter how far apart the two electrons are. He called this 'spooky action at a distance', because at first sight it seems as if the electrons are communicating faster than light, which is forbidden according to the special theory of relativity.”

— John Gribbin, Six Impossible Things

A single word in this passage carries a heavy explanatory load: decides. Much like the “knew” in the two-slit experiment, decides is not a literal description of physical reality. Electrons do not deliberate, choose, or act with agency. Yet the metaphor is introduced at precisely the point where ordinary physical description strains to account for correlations between distant events.

What is being smuggled in under the cover of decides? Consider what ordinary decision entails:

1. Agency — an entity capable of choosing between alternatives.

2. Access to options — awareness of the available possibilities.

3. Temporal sequencing — a before and after in which the decision is made.

None of these conditions applies to an electron in superposition. There is no standpoint from which it surveys possibilities, no mechanism by which it exercises choice, and no temporal event in which the “decision” occurs as a causal act. The moment one electron is measured does not “trigger” the state of the other; it only actualises one of the possible outcomes constrained by the joint structure of the entangled system.

Why, then, does Gribbin employ the word decides? It is a classic symptom of explanatory strain. The text is attempting to convey a remarkable fact about correlations: that the spins of entangled electrons are constrained in such a way that they always appear opposite, regardless of spatial separation. The intuitive human reaction is to imagine the electrons actively coordinating or communicating, and decides serves as a shorthand for that intuition.

The metaphor has consequences. By framing the correlation as a decision by electron A that instantaneously determines electron B, the passage smuggles in notions of instantaneous influence and forbidden faster-than-light communication. It sets the stage for the familiar rhetorical drama of “spooky action at a distance,” which, as we will see, is more a symptom of how we talk about correlated outcomes than a statement about reality itself.

In the next post, we will examine the temporal smuggling more closely: how the narrative of one electron deciding first and the other responding second introduces a pseudo-causal structure, and why this temporal framing is not required to understand the correlation.

Between Knowing and Deciding — Explanatory Humility and the Two‑Slit Experiment

Before turning to entanglement, John Gribbin pauses to qualify the discussion of the two‑slit experiment. The passage is careful, restrained, and explicitly anti‑naïve. Precisely for that reason, it is worth examining closely.

“It isn't that things like electrons are seen behaving as both wave and particle at the same time. They seem to travel through the experiment like waves, but they seem to arrive at the detector screen like particles. Sometimes they behave as if they were waves, sometimes they behave as if they were particles. The as if is very important. We have no way of knowing what quantum entities ‘really are’, because we are not quantum entities. We can only make analogies with things we have direct experience of, such as waves and particles.”

At first glance, this looks like exemplary scientific caution. Gribbin explicitly rejects the crude idea that electrons are waves or are particles, emphasises the metaphorical status of both descriptions, and warns against taking either literally. But this apparent humility does important conceptual work — and not all of it is benign.

The work done by “as if”

The phrase as if appears to suspend ontological commitment. Electrons behave as if they were waves, as if they were particles — but are neither. Yet this very suspension quietly preserves a deeper assumption: that there is something electrons really are, over and above the phenomena we observe, and that wave and particle descriptions are merely imperfect stand‑ins for that hidden reality.

The caution does not dissolve the ontological question; it stabilises it. The reader is invited to set aside naïve literalism, but not to question the representational framing itself. The mystery is relocated, not removed: if electrons are neither waves nor particles, what are they really?

From the perspective of relational ontology, this is already a misstep. There is no further “what it really is” waiting behind phenomena. Phenomena are not appearances of an unconstrued substrate; they are first‑order meanings — outcomes intelligible only in relation to the structured potential that makes them possible. The as if does not neutralise realism; it preserves it while appearing to be cautious.

Travel, arrival, and illicit process metaphysics

Gribbin’s formulation also relies on a familiar but problematic narrative:

“They seem to travel through the experiment like waves, but they seem to arrive at the detector screen like particles.”

Here, a continuous process is smuggled in. Something is imagined as persisting through space and time, behaving one way during transit and another at arrival. But nothing in the formalism requires such a story. There is a structured potential — characterised by the wavefunction — and there are discrete detection events. There is no fact of the matter about how an electron “travels” between source and screen.

By narrating potential as behaviour in time, instantiation is misdescribed as a transition: wave‑like becoming particle‑like. The appearance of duality is then treated as a puzzle about how one thing changes its nature mid‑flight, rather than as a category error arising from conflating structured potential with actualised events.

“Sometimes they behave…”

The phrase “sometimes they behave as if they were waves, sometimes as if they were particles” introduces a further slippage. It suggests that electrons themselves vary their mode of behaviour from occasion to occasion, as though they possessed a repertoire from which different responses are selected.

But what varies is not the electron; it is the construal. Wave‑like descriptions characterise structured potential. Particle‑like descriptions characterise actualised detection events. These are not modes the electron switches between; they are different theoretical articulations corresponding to different cuts.

Once again, explanatory strain arises because variability is located in the entity rather than in the perspectival framing.

Epistemic humility and the return of the noumenal

Gribbin continues:

“We have no way of knowing what quantum entities ‘really are’, because we are not quantum entities.”

This sounds modest, but it introduces a strong metaphysical commitment: that quantum entities have a determinate nature “in themselves” which is inaccessible to us. The limitation is framed as epistemic — we cannot know — rather than as a misplaced ontological demand.

Relational ontology rejects this move. There is no unconstrued reality hiding behind phenomena, waiting to be accessed by a more suitable kind of observer. Construal is not a limitation on access to reality; it is constitutive of what counts as real. The appeal to our non‑quantum status quietly reinstates a Kantian split between appearance and noumenon, even as the text warns against naïve realism.

Analogy as crutch rather than constitution

Finally, Gribbin treats analogy as a second‑best substitute:

“We can only make analogies with things we have direct experience of…”

Here, analogy is framed as epistemically deficient — a workaround forced on us by our cognitive limitations. But this again misidentifies the source of the problem. Wave and particle are not inadequate approximations to a truer description; they are different ways of articulating different aspects of the same structured potential. All meaning is relationally construed. There is no more literal description waiting in reserve.

A hinge moment

This passage matters because it sits precisely between two kinds of explanatory strain. In the two‑slit experiment, electrons are said to “know” the experimental setup. In entanglement, they will be said to “decide” outcomes across space. Here, Gribbin pauses, reins in the metaphors, and urges caution.

But the caution itself preserves the framework that makes later metaphors feel necessary. By retaining process narratives, representational realism, and a hidden “really is,” the mystery is kept alive — disciplined, respectable, and ready to re‑emerge.

Seen this way, the passage is not a solution but a stabiliser. It prepares the ground for the next chapter, where electrons will no longer merely behave as if — they will appear to decide.

Explanatory Strain and the Two-Slit Experiment: 4 Instantiation Without Mystery

The previous posts have cleared the ground. We have seen why talk of particles “knowing” things is a symptom of explanatory strain, how appeals to past and future electrons illicitly temporalise what is not a temporal relation, and why interference patterns are not built, coordinated, or produced by events acting together across time.

What remains is the positive account. If patterns are not effects, and if events do not coordinate to produce them, then what is the relation between a single electron detection and the interference pattern it exemplifies?

The missing concept is instantiation.

In the relational ontology developed in our recent work, a system is not first a collection of things that later happens to display regularities. A system is a structured potential: a theory of possible instances defined relative to a particular construal. The experimental arrangement—the slits, their geometry, the detection screen—does not merely provide a backdrop against which electrons behave. It defines the space of possible outcomes that any detection can actualise.

On this view, what is often called the “wavefunction” is not a physical object evolving in time, nor a mysterious entity that somehow accompanies each particle. It is a formal description of the structured potential associated with a given experimental construal. It specifies, in abstract terms, how possible detection events are distributed across the available space.

An individual electron detection is an instance of that potential. It is not caused by the wavefunction, nor does it emerge from it as a later stage of a process. Rather, it is a perspectival cut: the point at which the system-as-theory is actualised as a system-as-instance.

This cut is not something that happens in time in addition to the detection event. It just is the detection event, viewed as an instance of a theory-relative structure. Nothing flows, collapses, or propagates. There is no need to imagine information being consulted or decisions being made. The relation between potential and instance is constitutive, not causal.

Once instantiation is understood in this way, the so-called “central mystery” of the two-slit experiment dissolves. Each electron does not need to know how many slits are open, because the number of slits is already built into the structured potential that defines what counts as a possible detection. Each electron does not need to know what other electrons have done, because no detection ever responds to any other. And there is no influence from the future, because nothing about the explanation depends on temporal order at all.

What appears mysterious only does so because we persist in asking the wrong kind of question. We ask how events manage to coordinate themselves so as to produce a pattern, when we should be asking how events come to count as instances of a structured situation in the first place.

Seen through this lens, the two-slit experiment is not a demonstration of particles behaving strangely, nor of reality defying common sense. It is a demonstration of the limits of an ontology that recognises only events and processes, and has no place for structured potential as a first-class explanatory category.

The interference pattern does not need to be explained as something that happens. It needs to be recognised as something that is presupposed by every detection event as a condition of its intelligibility. Once that shift is made, the anthropomorphic metaphors fall away, the temporal paradoxes evaporate, and the experiment loses its air of mystery—without losing any of its significance.

What remains is not an enigma, but a demand: that we take seriously the relations between theories and instances, between construal and phenomenon, and between potential and actualisation. The two-slit experiment does not force us into mysticism. It forces us to get our ontology right.

Explanatory Strain and the Two-Slit Experiment: 3 Patterns Are Not Built

The lingering intuition behind many explanations of the two-slit experiment is that interference patterns must somehow be produced by electrons acting together across time. If electrons arrive one by one, the thought goes, then the pattern must be gradually constructed out of their accumulated impacts. Something must be coordinating those impacts so that, taken together, they trace the familiar bands.

This picture is deeply intuitive—and deeply mistaken.

To see why, it helps to ask a deceptively simple question: what kind of thing is an interference pattern?

An interference pattern is not an event. It does not occur at a moment, nor does it have a location independent of the detections from which it is inferred. Nor is it a process unfolding in time. Nothing happens to a pattern as electrons are detected. What happens are detections; the pattern is a way of characterising their distribution.

This distinction matters. Events happen. Processes unfold. Patterns, by contrast, are recognised.

When we say that an interference pattern “emerges” as electrons strike the screen, we are not describing something coming into being in the world. We are describing a change in what is visible to us as observers with access to many instances. With only a handful of detections, the distribution is opaque; with many, it becomes legible. The world has not changed in kind. Our construal has.

The temptation to think of patterns as built is reinforced by everyday examples where accumulation genuinely produces a new object: a wall built brick by brick, a heap formed grain by grain. In such cases, each contribution alters the state of the system. The later state depends causally on the earlier ones. But electron detections do not stand in this relation to an interference pattern. No detection alters the conditions governing subsequent detections. Nothing about the experimental arrangement is modified by an electron striking the screen.

This is why talk of coordination is misplaced. Coordination presupposes interaction: signals exchanged, adjustments made, constraints updated. None of this occurs in the two-slit experiment. There is no mechanism by which electrons could coordinate even if we wanted to posit one, because there is nothing for them to coordinate with. Each detection is governed by the same constraints, regardless of what has happened before.

Once this is recognised, a further confusion comes into view. The idea that patterns are produced encourages us to treat the interference pattern as an effect for which electrons are jointly responsible. But electrons are not jointly responsible for anything here. Each detection stands alone. The pattern is not an outcome of their cooperation; it is a description of their collective distribution.

Put bluntly: electrons do not make patterns. Patterns make electrons intelligible.

This reversal is difficult to accept because it runs against a deeply ingrained explanatory habit. We are used to explaining global regularities by appealing to local interactions. When that strategy fails, as it does here, we are tempted to invent exotic interactions—non-local influence, retrocausation, hidden communication—to rescue the habit. The rhetoric of mystery thrives in this gap.

But the failure lies not in the phenomena, and not in the physics. It lies in the assumption that explanation must proceed from events to patterns, rather than from structured constraints to instances.

Once we let go of the idea that patterns are built or produced, the two-slit experiment loses much of its air of paradox. There is no longer any need to imagine electrons coordinating across time, consulting histories, or anticipating futures. There remains only a question that has so far been left implicit: what kind of thing is the structure that governs these distributions, if it is neither an event nor a process?

Answering that question requires a shift in how we think about systems and instances, potential and actualisation. In the next post, we will argue that the missing concept is instantiation itself—not as a process unfolding in time, but as the relation that makes individual events intelligible as instances of a structured potential.

Explanatory Strain and the Two-Slit Experiment: 2 One Electron at a Time: How Temporality Gets Smuggled In

In the passage quoted in the previous post, the most striking claim is not that electrons somehow “know” the experimental configuration. It is that each electron is said to know what happened to the electrons that went before it and the ones that would come after it.

This appeal to past and future electrons is doing crucial explanatory work. It is also doing illicit work.

At first glance, the move seems harmless. After all, the interference pattern only becomes visible once many electrons have been detected. It is tempting to describe the pattern as something that is gradually built up over time, and then to treat that temporal accumulation as something each electron must in some sense be responding to. But this temptation rests on a quiet shift in explanatory focus: from events to distributions, and then back again.

A single electron detection is a local event. It occurs at a particular time and at a particular location on the detection screen. It has no duration beyond that event, and no access to any other event. Nothing about the physics of the situation licenses the idea that one detection is influenced by another, let alone by detections that have not yet occurred.

The interference pattern, by contrast, is not an event at all. It is a statistical regularity visible only when many detection events are considered together. Crucially, it is not located at any particular moment in time. The pattern is invariant across trials, not produced by their temporal order.

When Gribbin invokes earlier and later electrons, these two distinct kinds of thing—events and distributions—are tacitly conflated. The stability of the distribution across many runs is redescribed as though it were a temporal relation between individual electrons. Past detections are treated as if they exert an influence, and future detections as if they are somehow already in play.

This is where the sense of paradox intensifies. If electrons are truly fired one at a time, how could a later electron be affected by an earlier one? And how could it possibly be affected by electrons that have not yet been detected? The experiment begins to look as though it requires retrocausation, memory, or some kind of non-local coordination across time.

But none of this follows unless we first accept the mistaken premise that the interference pattern is something produced by electrons acting across time.

The pattern is not built up in the way a heap of sand is built grain by grain. Nothing accumulates in the world as electrons strike the screen, except marks on a detector. What accumulates is our evidence of a distribution that was already defined by the experimental arrangement.

To put the point sharply: no single electron ever contributes to an interference pattern. The pattern is not an effect to which electrons add their share. It is a property of the experimental construal that governs how electron detections are distributed across many instances.

Once this distinction is kept firmly in view, the appeal to past and future electrons loses its grip. There is no need to imagine electrons consulting a history of previous events or anticipating events yet to come. Each detection is constrained in exactly the same way, regardless of when it occurs, because the constraint does not operate through time.

The illicit temporalisation of the explanation arises from treating iteration as interaction. Repeating the same experiment many times is mistaken for a process unfolding in time, rather than for the repeated instantiation of the same structured situation. Temporal order becomes explanatorily salient only because the pattern is mischaracterised as something that emerges from the sequence itself.

This confusion sets the stage for the most persistent misreading of the two-slit experiment: the idea that electrons must somehow coordinate their behaviour across time in order to produce the observed result. In the next post, we will argue that this coordination picture is not merely unnecessary, but conceptually incoherent. Patterns do not need to be built, coordinated, or produced. They need only to be instantiated.

Explanatory Strain and the Two-Slit Experiment: 1 Why Do Particles ‘Know’ Things?

“Once again, the electrons ‘knew’ how many slits were open … Each electron seemed to ‘know’ not only what the exact experimental set-up was at the time it made its flight through the apparatus, but also what happened to the electrons that went before it and the ones that would come after it.”

— John Gribbin, Six Impossible Things

It is worth lingering over this sentence, because an extraordinary amount of conceptual work is being done by a single word: knew.

Gribbin’s use of the term is clearly metaphorical. Electrons do not possess minds, memories, or beliefs. Yet the metaphor is not ornamental. It is explanatory. It is introduced at precisely the point where ordinary physical description runs out, and where something must bridge the gap between two claims that Gribbin wishes to hold simultaneously: that electrons are detected one at a time, and that their detections nevertheless conform to a stable interference pattern determined by the experimental configuration.

The word knew functions as that bridge. It allows Gribbin to gesture at a relation between a single detection event and a global experimental structure without specifying what kind of relation this is. In doing so, it quietly imports a familiar cognitive schema—access to information, awareness of conditions, sensitivity to alternatives—into a domain where none of those notions properly belong.

To see how much is being smuggled in, consider what it would actually mean for an electron to know how many slits were open.

Knowing, even in its weakest everyday sense, presupposes at least three things:

1. A distinction between alternatives — there must be something it is possible to be wrong about.

2. Access to a comparison class — the knower must be situated such that different possibilities can, in principle, be discriminated.

3. A standpoint from which conditions are apprehended — knowledge is always knowledge for someone or something.

None of these conditions can be made sense of at the level of a single electron detection. There is no standpoint, no access, no discrimination of alternatives. There is only an event: a localised detection at a particular position on a screen.

Why, then, does the metaphor feel so natural?

The answer lies in the specific explanatory pressure created by the two-slit experiment. When electrons are fired one at a time, there is a strong temptation to treat each detection as an isolated occurrence whose properties must be explained solely in terms of what happens at that moment. But the observed distribution of detections is not arbitrary. It is constrained by the entire experimental arrangement: the number of slits, their geometry, and the measurement set-up as a whole.

Gribbin’s sentence attempts to register this constraint. The problem is that, lacking a clear account of how a single event can legitimately be described as constrained by a global structure, the explanation slips into anthropomorphic terms. The electron is said to know the configuration, because knowing is the everyday concept we use when an individual outcome reliably tracks a larger set of conditions.

This move has several immediate consequences.

First, it recasts structural constraint as epistemic access. Instead of asking how the experimental configuration defines the space of possible outcomes, we are invited to imagine an electron that somehow consults that configuration before deciding where to land.

Second, it introduces a temporal distortion. Gribbin does not merely say that the electron knows the current set-up; he says it knows about electrons that came before and electrons that will come after. Here the metaphor does even heavier lifting. What is really being gestured at is the stability of a distribution across many trials, but that stability is redescribed as though it were the result of memory and anticipation on the part of each individual event.

Finally, the metaphor reverses the direction of explanation. Instead of the interference pattern being understood as a property of the experimental construal that governs individual detections, the pattern begins to look like something produced by electrons somehow coordinating their behaviour across time.

At this point, the familiar rhetoric of mystery takes hold. How could a single electron possibly know all this? How could it be influenced by events that have not yet occurred? The sense of paradox is real—but it is a paradox generated by the metaphor itself.

In the posts that follow, we will argue that nothing in the two-slit experiment requires us to attribute knowledge, memory, or foresight to electrons. The appearance that it does arises from a deeper confusion about how patterns relate to events, and about how potential structures are instantiated in particular cases. Once those confusions are brought into view, the metaphor of knowing can be set aside—not because it is poetic, but because it is doing the wrong kind of explanatory work.

Explanatory Strain and the Two-Slit Experiment: Introduction

The two-slit experiment is often described as the “central mystery” of quantum physics. Not because its experimental results are in doubt, but because explaining those results places extraordinary pressure on our ordinary ways of talking about systems, events, and causation. Where explanation strains, metaphor rushes in to compensate.

This short series takes as its point of departure a familiar passage from John Gribbin’s Six Impossible Things, in which single electrons passing through a two-slit apparatus are said to “know” how many slits are open, what electrons have done before them, and what electrons will do after them. Gribbin is not being careless. On the contrary, the passage is representative of a widespread and well-intentioned explanatory strategy in popular (and sometimes professional) accounts of quantum phenomena. Precisely for that reason, it is philosophically revealing.

The aim of the series is not to dispute the physics, nor to propose an alternative interpretation of quantum mechanics. Instead, it treats Gribbin’s explanation as a case study in explanatory strain: a moment where inherited metaphysical assumptions are no longer adequate to the phenomena being described, and where anthropomorphic and cognitive metaphors are pressed into service to conceal that inadequacy.

Across the posts that follow, we examine what these metaphors are doing, what conceptual work they are attempting to perform, and why they are so persistently tempting. We then show how the apparent mystery dissolves once we abandon the assumption that events must somehow build or coordinate patterns across time, and instead treat interference as the repeated instantiation of a structured potential defined by the experimental construal.

This analysis is continuous with the concerns of our recent work on relational ontology, but it is deliberately local and textually grounded. The two-slit experiment provides a compact site in which issues of potential, instantiation, temporality, and explanation converge. By staying close to a single, widely circulated explanation, the series aims to clarify not only what goes wrong in popular accounts of quantum phenomena, but why those accounts go wrong in the first place.

Meta‑Synthesis: Relational Cuts, Theoretical Pathologies, and the Fate of Explanation

Across the series — When Physicists Talk About Reality, Relational Cuts in Modern Physics, A Theory of Theoretical Pathology, The Ontology of Explanation, From Model to World: The Vanishing of the Cut, Why Interpretations of Quantum Mechanics Never Converge, and String Theory as a Limit Case — a single structural diagnosis comes into focus.

What appears, on the surface, as a collection of domain‑specific problems is revealed as a family of related failures in how theories relate to phenomena.

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1. The Central Diagnostic: The Missing Cut

At the heart of every series lies the same structural absence: the failure to maintain a cut between theory and instance.

When this cut is maintained, theories function as structured spaces of possibility — intelligible precisely because they are not the world. When it collapses, models, formalisms, and symbolic systems begin to masquerade as reality itself.

This is not a local error. It is a generative condition for entire research programmes.

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2. Surrogates for Instantiation

Across domains, the loss of instantiation produces compensatory mechanisms:

• Aesthetic criteria (beauty, elegance, naturalness)

• Mathematical coherence and internal consistency

• Interpretative narratives layered atop underdetermined formalisms

• Predictive rhetoric detached from event‑anticipation

These surrogates do not fail accidentally. They succeed structurally — sustaining legitimacy, coordination, and authority in the absence of phenomena.

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3. Stable Disagreement and Interpretative Proliferation

Where formalism is underdetermined relative to phenomena, disagreement does not converge.

Interpretations proliferate not because participants are confused, but because each reparcels the same unconstrained object differently. Empirical equivalence stabilises disagreement. Critique fails to land because there is nothing, structurally, for it to dislodge.

This dynamic is clearest in quantum mechanics, but it generalises widely.

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4. From Explanation to Derivation

As the cut vanishes, explanation quietly collapses into derivation.

What once aimed to make phenomena intelligible becomes an exercise in formal manipulation. Intelligibility is preserved symbolically, even as contact with the world thins. The appearance of explanation remains, while its relational grounding disappears.

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5. Theoretical Pathology as a Systemic Condition

The resulting pathologies are not correctable from within the system that produces them:

• More data does not restore instantiation.

• More mathematics does not recover phenomena.

• Better instruments do not repair a missing cut.

Pathological theories are not wrong in the ordinary sense. They are structurally self‑maintaining.

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6. String Theory as the Limit Case

String theory makes these dynamics visible in extreme form:

• Mathematics functions as a surrogate world.

• Internal elegance sustains authority.

• Phenomena are indefinitely deferred.

It is not an aberration, but a clarifying magnification of patterns present elsewhere.

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7. What This Work Does — and Does Not — Offer

These series do not propose new interpretations, new theories, or methodological recipes.

They offer something quieter and more demanding:

• A way of seeing when theory has lost its world.

• A vocabulary for diagnosing structural failure without polemic.

• An ontology that appears not as doctrine, but as a condition of possibility for non‑pathological theory.

The aim is not reform, but intelligibility.

And in making these structures visible, the work clears conceptual space — without pretending to fill it.

String Theory as a Limit Case: 5 Lessons for Structural Diagnosis

String theory, as a limit case, illustrates several structural dynamics relevant across theoretical domains:

1. Surrogate authority: Internal elegance, symmetry, and coherence can sustain legitimacy without empirical grounding.

2. Symbolic reification: Mathematics can function symbolically as the world itself, with community alignment reinforcing credibility.

3. Persistence independent of phenomena: The theory maintains coherence and influence even in the absence of instantiated predictions.

4. Structural patterns across domains: These dynamics are observable in other theoretical contexts — physics, climate modelling, AI, and economic models — where symbolic systems can dominate relational engagement with phenomena.

Understanding string theory in this way provides a diagnostic lens: it helps identify when symbolic systems are operating as self-contained, internally authoritative structures, rather than relational theories of possible instances. Recognising these patterns allows analysts to navigate theoretical landscapes more clearly, highlighting the boundary between formalism and the world it purports to describe.

String Theory as a Limit Case: 4 Symbolic Reification

In string theory, the mathematical formalism comes to function symbolically as the world itself. The symbols, equations, and internal structures are treated as if they fully capture reality, even when direct empirical instantiation is absent.

This symbolic reification is reinforced by community dynamics. Internal coherence, technical sophistication, and shared expertise create a social environment in which the theory maintains authority and legitimacy. Confidence in the mathematics substitutes for engagement with physical phenomena, and the symbolic object becomes the primary reference point for explanation, prediction, and discourse.

Recognising this reification is crucial for structural diagnosis: string theory illustrates the extreme case in which a symbolic system sustains itself independently of its relational connection to the world, highlighting patterns of authority, persistence, and internal elegance that recur across other theoretical domains.

String Theory as a Limit Case: 3 Phenomenon Deferred

String theory exemplifies a situation where the connection to physical phenomena is indirect or deferred. Many of its predictions lie beyond current experimental reach, and empirical confirmation of its structures remains elusive.

As a result, the theory functions primarily within its symbolic and formal framework. Predictions are conditional, often relying on complex assumptions or untested parameters, and their validation is postponed indefinitely. The phenomena that the theory aims to describe are not directly instantiated, yet the theory maintains coherence, explanatory power, and community authority within its symbolic domain.

This deferral illustrates a structural dynamic: theory remains meaningful and operational even without direct engagement with phenomena. The distinction between the symbolic object and the world it purports to describe is essential for understanding string theory as a limit case of surrogate authority.

String Theory as a Limit Case: 2 Internal Elegance as Authority

In string theory, internal elegance, symmetry, and unification serve as surrogates for empirical grounding. Where direct observation or instantiation is unavailable, the formal beauty of the theory provides a source of authority, legitimacy, and intellectual prestige.

The physics community reinforces this authority: peer recognition, institutional support, and the prominence of leading researchers amplify confidence in the theory. Elegance and coherence are not merely aesthetic qualities; they function structurally to maintain credibility and coherence within the symbolic system.

This mechanism demonstrates that authority need not depend on relational engagement with phenomena. The theory’s symbolic integrity and the community’s collective valuation provide an internally sustained structure, ensuring persistence, coherence, and influence even in the absence of experimental verification.

String Theory as a Limit Case: 1 The Mathematical Object

String theory presents a highly structured and internally coherent mathematical object. Its complexity, symmetry, and elegance produce a richly interconnected framework capable of unifying diverse physical phenomena within a single formalism.

Crucially, the theory is largely untested empirically. Many of its predictions lie beyond current experimental capability, and direct instantiation of its mathematical structures in observable phenomena is absent. Despite this, the internal coherence and formal beauty confer a form of authority within the physics community.

The mathematical object itself becomes the focal point: its patterns, symmetries, and formal consistency are treated as meaningful in a way that is largely independent of direct engagement with physical instances. Recognising this distinction — between the symbolic structure and the world it purports to describe — is the first step in diagnosing string theory as a limit case of symbolic reification.

Why "Interpretations" of Quantum Mechanics Never Converge: 6 Recognition Without Prescription

The series concludes with a diagnostic perspective: quantum interpretations proliferate and persist not because of conceptual failure, but because of the structural underdetermination of the formalism.

No new interpretation is offered, nor is a prescriptive resolution attempted. The purpose is visibility: to understand why disagreement is stable, why convergence is improbable, and how interpretations function as internally coherent reparcellations of the same unconstrained mathematical object.

Recognition entails appreciating the structural dynamics:

• Empirical equivalence ensures no interpretation is privileged by observation alone.

• Internal coherence allows each framework to maintain authority and legitimacy.

• Structural divergence produces stable disagreement even among experts who share the same data.

By attending to these dynamics, educators, researchers, and philosophers can engage quantum mechanics relationally: understanding the difference between formalism and narrative, between model and world, without conflating mathematical representation with phenomena. Recognition without prescription respects both the complexity of the field and the structural patterns that make the multiplicity of interpretations intelligible.

Why "Interpretations" of Quantum Mechanics Never Converge: 5 Implications for Pedagogy and Practice

The structural proliferation of quantum interpretations has significant consequences for pedagogy, research culture, and scientific communication.

• Teaching: Students encounter multiple frameworks, each internally coherent, leading to conceptual flexibility but also potential confusion. The multiplicity becomes part of the curriculum, shaping expectations about the nature of theory and reality.

• Research Culture: Communities often coalesce around preferred interpretations, developing shared terminology, methods, and priorities. Collaboration, citation, and authority are influenced more by interpretive alignment than empirical distinction.

• Communication: Presenting quantum mechanics to wider audiences requires careful navigation. The interpretive landscape is often simplified or selectively emphasised, reinforcing certain narratives while marginalising others.

The key insight is that interpretive proliferation is structurally inevitable, not a consequence of poor teaching or sloppy research. Understanding this allows educators, researchers, and communicators to engage with quantum mechanics relationally: recognising the formalism, its unconstrained flexibility, and the structural patterns that produce disagreement, without treating the multiplicity as a problem in need of resolution.

Why "Interpretations" of Quantum Mechanics Never Converge: 4 The Limits of Resolution

Convergence among quantum interpretations is structurally impossible. Each interpretation is internally coherent and reproduces all empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. Because the formalism is underdetermined relative to phenomena, evidence alone cannot definitively adjudicate between interpretations.

Attempts to resolve disagreement through experiment, philosophical critique, or technical argumentation routinely encounter structural barriers:

• Empirical equivalence: All mainstream interpretations generate the same predictions for observable phenomena. No experiment can definitively prefer one over the other.

• Internal coherence: Each interpretation maintains consistency within its conceptual framework. Challenges from alternative interpretations highlight conceptual differences rather than errors.

• Structural incommensurability: The narratives, conceptual partitions, and emphasis differ, producing stable divergence even when participants share empirical understanding.

As a result, disagreement is predictably persistent. Resolution is impossible on the terms being used, not because of intellectual failure, but because the structural conditions allow multiple, equally valid reparcellations of the formalism. Understanding these limits reframes debates: the focus shifts from seeking a final interpretation to diagnosing the mechanisms that make convergence structurally unlikely.

Why "Interpretations" of Quantum Mechanics Never Converge: 3 Reparcelling the Unconstrained Object

The core mechanism behind persistent interpretive disagreement lies in the structural underdetermination of quantum mechanics. The formalism is unconstrained relative to phenomena in multiple conceptual dimensions, allowing distinct interpretations to partition, organise, and narrativise the same mathematical object differently.

• Copenhagen: emphasises classical measurement context and probabilistic outcomes.

• Many-Worlds: partitions possibilities into branching universes.

• de Broglie-Bohm: introduces hidden variables and deterministic trajectories.

• QBism: reframes the formalism as an agent-centred epistemic tool.

Each interpretation is internally coherent, reproduces the predictions of quantum mechanics, and selectively emphasises certain aspects of the formalism while marginalising others. The result is multiple, equally valid frameworks, each representing a different reparcellation of the same unconstrained mathematical object.

Because these partitions do not conflict empirically, disagreement is stable. The interpretations are not competing descriptions of different phenomena, but alternative organisational structures applied to the same formalism. Recognising this reframes the debate: multiplicity is a predictable outcome of structural underdetermination, not a conceptual or empirical failure.

Why "Interpretations" of Quantum Mechanics Never Converge: 2 Structural Proliferation

The proliferation of quantum interpretations is not a random accident; it is a structural phenomenon. Each interpretation reorganises the same formalism differently, privileging certain conceptual distinctions, philosophical commitments, or narrative structures.

Because the underlying mathematics is underdetermined relative to phenomena, multiple internally coherent interpretations can coexist. Disagreement is stable rather than progressive: no single interpretation can definitively replace the others based solely on empirical evidence.

This structural proliferation is reinforced by social and institutional dynamics. Communities coalesce around particular interpretive frameworks, developing specialised language, pedagogical practices, and research emphases. Internal coherence, shared understanding, and rhetorical reinforcement maintain authority even in the absence of decisive empirical adjudication.

The result is a landscape in which multiplicity is the norm. New interpretations emerge, old interpretations persist, and the debate remains ongoing — not because of conceptual failure, but because the formalism permits multiple, equally valid, partitions. Recognising this stability is essential for diagnosing the phenomenon and understanding why resolution is structurally improbable.

Why "Interpretations" of Quantum Mechanics Never Converge: 1 The Landscape of Quantum Interpretations

Quantum mechanics is notorious for the diversity of interpretations that accompany its formalism. These interpretations — Copenhagen, Many-Worlds, de Broglie-Bohm, Objective Collapse, QBism, and others — coexist despite sharing the same predictive and mathematical structure.

The landscape is remarkable not for the novelty of individual interpretations, but for the sheer persistence and proliferation of alternative accounts. Over nearly a century, interpretations have multiplied rather than converged. Each claims conceptual or philosophical superiority, yet none can definitively supplant the others within the existing empirical framework.

This multiplicity is not accidental or merely rhetorical. It reflects a structural feature of quantum mechanics: the formalism is under-determined relative to phenomena, allowing distinct partitions and narrative constructions. The interpretations provide internally coherent ways to organise the same underlying mathematics, each privileging certain conceptual emphases.

Understanding the landscape is the first step toward diagnosing the phenomenon. The proliferation itself is the signal: the focus is not which interpretation is “correct,” but why structural dynamics make convergence improbable. Recognising the multiplicity as a stable structural pattern allows us to analyse interpretations relationally — as reparcellations of a shared formal object — without invoking any new physical postulate or solution.

From Model to World: 6: Structural Rescue or Illusion

Even when the relational cut has vanished, models can appear coherent, effective, and authoritative. This structural rescue is not a miracle of epistemic insight but a product of internal consistency, institutional alignment, and social reinforcement.

Models maintain functionality internally: simulations reproduce themselves, predictions match expectations within the model framework, and communities converge on interpretations. Authority is sustained through repetition, consensus, and technical complexity. To an observer within the system, the model appears robust, predictive, and deeply connected to reality.

Yet this coherence is an illusion from a relational perspective. The model’s outputs are not grounded in phenomena beyond the model itself. Internal consistency and structural elegance are mistaken for empirical fidelity. The relational cut remains absent; the model is still a theory of possible instances, not the world itself.

This structural pattern recurs across domains. Physics, climate science, economics, and AI all demonstrate instances where models operate effectively and authoritatively, even while the cut with the real world is missing. The consequence is subtle but profound: authority and credibility are maintained structurally rather than relationally.

Recognising this dynamic is the culmination of the series. It shows that vanishing cuts are not mere errors; they are systematic, diagnosable phenomena. Understanding them equips practitioners to interpret models more carefully, question assumptions, and remain aware of the distinction between possibility and reality, preserving the essential relational cut for meaningful engagement.

From Model to World: 5 Signs of the Vanishing Cut

Recognising when a model is being treated as the world itself is essential for both analysis and intervention. Several heuristics indicate that the relational cut has disappeared:

1. Over-reliance on simulation outputs: Decisions or interpretations are driven primarily by model results, rather than relational engagement with the underlying system.

2. Unquestioned assumptions: Model parameters, structural choices, or scenario boundaries are rarely challenged, and their contingent nature is overlooked.

3. Predictive authority without validation: The model’s forecasts are treated as trustworthy, even in domains where empirical testing is limited or impossible.

4. Selective attention to congruence: Instances where the model aligns with observed phenomena are amplified, while discrepancies are rationalized or ignored.

5. Institutional and rhetorical reinforcement: The model’s outputs are cited as evidence of reality, with credibility maintained through community consensus, repetition, and prestige rather than relational accuracy.

These signs are not always immediately obvious. The model may function effectively within its domain, producing useful guidance or internal coherence. Yet the structural risk remains: the model’s authority is derived internally, not relationally, and the boundary between model and world is obscured.

Recognising these signs allows practitioners and analysts to diagnose vanishing cuts and maintain awareness of the model’s status as a theory of possibilities rather than literal reality. The next part will explore structural rescue or illusion, showing how model authority can be internally sustained even when the cut has disappeared.

From Model to World: 4 The Consequences of Vanishing Cuts

When the cut between model and world disappears, the consequences are both subtle and profound. Authority is conferred on the model itself, while relational engagement with phenomena is diminished.

Key consequences include:

• Misinterpretation of uncertainty as determinacy: Model outputs are often read as precise predictions rather than conditional possibilities. The structural difference between projection and reality is obscured.

• Policy and decision-making risks: Decisions are based on model authority rather than empirical evidence or relational validation. In climate, economic, and AI contexts, this can lead to misallocation of resources or flawed interventions.

• Internal legitimacy substitutes for empirical grounding: Confidence in the model grows through internal coherence, replication of simulations, and community reinforcement, even when the model has not been validated against phenomena.

• Resistance to critique: Challenges that appeal to empirical limitations are often ineffective. The model’s authority is structural rather than relational, insulated by institutional trust, consensus, or perceived technical sophistication.

Recognising these consequences highlights the diagnostic value of relational cuts. The vanishing cut is not a flaw in logic or methodology; it is a structural phenomenon that repeats across domains. Awareness of the cut, and vigilance against its disappearance, is essential for accurate interpretation, responsible decision-making, and maintaining alignment between theory and world.

The next part will identify signs of the vanishing cut, providing heuristics to recognise when models are being treated as the world itself.

From Model to World: 3 Structural Reification Across Domains

Once the relational cut between model and world vanishes, the structural pattern repeats across multiple domains. Models begin to be treated as the phenomena themselves, conferring authority and guiding decisions independently of empirical instantiation.

Physics: String theory, cosmology, and dark matter models illustrate the phenomenon. Theories generate complex mathematical structures that are treated as factual accounts, despite limited empirical access. Authority arises from internal coherence, elegance, and predictive plausibility rather than direct engagement with phenomena.

Climate Science: Earth system and general circulation models are often read as literal projections of the world’s future. Policy and planning decisions sometimes rely on these outputs as if they were the world itself, with uncertainty and conditionality underemphasised.

Economics: Macroeconomic models simulate national economies, yet forecasts are frequently treated as prescriptive. Parameters are tuned, scenarios projected, and policy recommendations derived as if the model were reality rather than a structured theory of possible outcomes.

AI and Cognitive Modelling: Alignment models, neural simulations, and behavioural predictions are sometimes interpreted as literal descriptions of agent reality. The relational cut is overlooked, leading to overconfidence in predictions and structural misalignment between model and environment.

Across domains, structural reification produces a common pattern: authority is conferred internally, the cut with actual phenomena is obscured, and critiques that appeal to empirical limitations often fail to land. Recognising this pattern allows us to diagnose the broader consequences and prefigure the structural hazards we will examine in the next part.

From Model to World: 2 When the Cut Disappears

The first structural mutation occurs when the relational cut between model and world vanishes. In this state, models are interpreted as if they were the phenomena themselves, and outputs are read as literal depictions rather than conditional projections.

This reification is subtle. Models often produce results that resemble observations, and practitioners may rely on them for planning, prediction, or explanation. The ease with which models map onto real-world data encourages the assumption that the model is reality, rather than a structured theory of possible instances.

Once the cut disappears, several consequences emerge:

• Conflation of data and model: outputs are treated as measurements rather than modelled possibilities.

• Misattribution of predictive authority: the model is judged by its internal coherence and apparent accuracy, not by the structural fidelity to actual phenomena.

• Stability of belief without validation: confidence in the model grows independently of its relational grounding.

This mutation is a structural hazard across domains. By ignoring the cut, communities begin to operate as if the model were reality, leading to misinterpretation, overconfidence, and the subtle erosion of empirical accountability. Recognising when the cut vanishes is the first step toward diagnosing and understanding

From Model to World: 1 What a Model Is, and What It Isn’t

Models are widely used across science, economics, climate research, and AI. Yet the first step in understanding their function is to recognise what they are and what they are not.

A model is a theory of possible instances. It is a structured abstraction that represents potential configurations, behaviours, or dynamics of a system. It does not exist as the system itself; it cannot instantiate phenomena independently. The relational cut — the distinction between model and world — is essential: the model is a tool for exploring possibilities, not a literal depiction of reality.

Classical examples illustrate clarity: a Newtonian planetary model represents the possible trajectories of celestial bodies; an ideal gas law models ensembles of particles under specific assumptions. In both cases, the model predicts or describes behaviour, but it does so as a theory of possibilities, not as the phenomena themselves.

Confusion arises when this cut is ignored or vanishes. When a model is treated as the world itself, outputs are interpreted as literal reality, uncertainties are underappreciated, and the theory’s relational status is obscured. The model ceases to be a diagnostic tool and becomes a surrogate for the world — a structural mutation we will explore across multiple domains.

Establishing this foundational clarity allows us to see the consequences of vanishing cuts, and why recognising the distinction between model and world is critical for accurate interpretation, evaluation, and responsible application of models.

The Aesthetic Turn in Physics: 6 Implications for Theory Evaluation

The aesthetic turn has profound consequences for how theories are evaluated, selected, and sustained. By substituting beauty, elegance, and simplicity for direct empirical engagement, physics has developed a structural pathway for authority that operates independently of instantiation.

Research programs are shaped by aesthetic criteria: theories that are elegant, symmetric, or parsimonious are privileged, while empirically adequate but 'ugly' alternatives are marginalized. Predictive and explanatory virtues may be supplemented or overshadowed by aesthetic approval. As a result, credibility, resources, and institutional support flow along lines defined by structural, rather than strictly epistemic, criteria.

Critique within this context often fails to land. Challenges that appeal to classical standards of prediction or empirical engagement are deflected by the rhetoric and institutional weight of aesthetic consensus. Authority is maintained not through anticipatory success but through repeated affirmation, community alignment, and formal or aesthetic coherence.

Recognizing the implications of the aesthetic turn reveals a broader pattern: structural surrogates — whether predictive, explanatory, or aesthetic — allow scientific authority to persist even when classical engagement with phenomena is partial, delayed, or absent. This insight prepares the way for subsequent analysis of other structural substitutions, including modeling practices, symbolic systems, and methodological norms.

The series concludes here, leaving the reader with a clear understanding of how aesthetic criteria function as a surrogate for epistemic engagement and the subtle yet powerful ways they shape theory evaluation and scientific practice. 

The Aesthetic Turn in Physics: 5 Coordination Without Meaning

Aesthetic criteria operate not only as individual judgments but as social and institutional stabilisers. Beauty, elegance, and simplicity coordinate the activities of research communities, allocate resources, and reinforce credibility — all without engaging meaningfully with the phenomena under study.

These criteria allow communities to converge on preferred lines of research, create shared standards of evaluation, and maintain coherence across complex theoretical landscapes. The effect is structural: the aesthetic turn organizes attention, shapes discourse, and consolidates authority, without epistemic guarantee.

Importantly, aesthetic coordination is not meaningless in a trivial sense. It serves a purpose: stabilizing research programs, guiding methodological choices, and reinforcing collective standards. Yet these functions are social and procedural, not semiotic. They do not ensure that the theory instantiated phenomena or predicted events; they ensure that the community remains aligned around preferred models.

This dynamic mirrors surrogate mechanisms in predictive drift and explanatory substitution. Structural legitimacy is maintained internally, while external engagement — the relational cut with the world — is mediated or deferred. The aesthetic turn exemplifies how communities sustain authority, coherence, and continuity without meaning-bearing assurance, reinforcing the patterns we have observed across theoretical practice.

The final part will consider the broader implications of this structural substitution, showing how the aesthetic turn reshapes theory evaluation, program selection, and the perception of epistemic success.

The Aesthetic Turn in Physics: 4 Ugly But Working

Not all theories that successfully account for phenomena are aesthetically pleasing. Some are empirically adequate yet lack symmetry, simplicity, or elegance. In modern physics, these theories are often marginalised or de-emphasised — a phenomenon we might call 'ugly but working.'

The aesthetic turn establishes selective pressure. Theories that conform to prevailing notions of beauty gain attention, resources, and credibility; those that do not are quietly sidelined, even when they are functionally successful. The mechanism operates structurally: aesthetic conformity substitutes for predictive or explanatory engagement, guiding the community toward models that satisfy formal or visual criteria rather than solely empirical adequacy.

This asymmetry is revealing. It underscores that aesthetics in physics is not merely ornamental; it functions as a structural filter, shaping which theories thrive and which fade. Empirical success alone is insufficient; the theory must also satisfy the community’s aesthetic standards to be recognised, stabilised, and amplified.

By examining 'ugly but working' theories, we can see the consequences of aesthetic substitution. Structural legitimacy is maintained through formal and rhetorical virtues rather than empirical engagement. The cut between theory and world is managed socially and symbolically: beauty becomes a gatekeeper, defining which theories are credible, communicable, and institutionally supported.

This dynamic mirrors patterns we have seen in predictive drift: both aesthetic and predictive criteria act as surrogates, sustaining theoretical authority in contexts where direct instantiation is limited, delayed, or structurally challenging.

The Aesthetic Turn in Physics: 3 The Rhetoric of Elegance

Beyond structural substitution, aesthetic criteria operate rhetorically, reinforcing the authority of theories through language and emphasis. Elegance is celebrated as inherently truthful, as if beauty itself were a mark of correctness. This rhetorical elevation magnifies the structural function of aesthetics, allowing internal coherence and formal virtues to be perceived as epistemic achievement.

Physicists routinely invoke aesthetic language to describe their theories: symmetry is praised, simplicity is lauded, and mathematical neatness is equated with insight. The repeated emphasis creates a feedback loop: the community begins to internalise aesthetic assessment as a reliable indicator of theoretical soundness.

The rhetoric of elegance protects theories from critique. A theory may be untested or empirically inaccessible, yet its elegance is celebrated as evidence of depth, subtlety, or inevitability. The appearance of understanding is maintained even in the absence of instantiation. Critiques that appeal to empirical inadequacy or predictive failure are deflected by appeals to beauty, symmetry, or conceptual economy.

This mechanism is subtle. It does not require deception; practitioners often sincerely value elegance. Yet the effect is structural: aesthetic rhetoric consolidates legitimacy, stabilises research communities, and shields theory from external challenge. It becomes a socially enacted surrogate for empirical engagement, quietly reinforcing authority where classical criteria might fail.

Recognising the rhetorical power of elegance is essential. It reveals that aesthetics in physics is not merely a matter of taste or pedagogical convenience, but a key mechanism by which theoretical authority is sustained, particularly in domains where instantiation is difficult or delayed.