Processes, participants, space, and causation establish what happens, who is involved, where it occurs, and how force flows. Now we examine how events are patterned in time — how languages actualise becoming itself. Relational ontology reminds us: temporality is not a neutral sequence; it is structured by construal.
1. Tensed vs. tenseless systems
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English and Romance languages: heavily tensed; past, present, and future are obligatorily marked.
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Events are placed along a linear timeline.
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Pirahã and Yucatec Maya: tenseless; temporal interpretation relies on aspect, context, or evidentiality.
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Temporal relations are emergent, relational, and context-dependent.
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Typological insight: Tense marking shapes the default horizon of experience, while tenseless systems foreground relational and event-based temporal construal.
2. Aspect and event structure
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Slavic languages: aspect dominates.
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Perfective vs. imperfective distinguishes completed vs. ongoing events, regardless of clock time.
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Eventualities are perceived in terms of internal temporal structure.
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Japanese: aspect interacts with modality and habituality, creating multi-dimensional temporal perspectives.
Typological insight: Aspectual systems structure the quality of unfolding, not merely its placement on a timeline.
3. Cyclical, spatial, or phase-based time
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Amharic and other languages in Africa and Oceania encode time via repetition, cyclicity, or spatial metaphors.
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Events are placed relative to phases, seasons, or recurring patterns.
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Temporality is relational, patterned by experience rather than abstract linearity.
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Typological insight: Time is a horizon of relational potential, not a universal metric.
4. Cross-linguistic comparison: key contrasts
| Feature | English | Slavic | Japanese | Pirahã/Yucatec Maya | Amharic/other cyclic |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Temporal marking | Obligatory | Aspect-focused | Aspect+modal | Contextual/tenseless | Phase/cycle-based |
| Primary axis of construal | Linear | Event-internal | Multi-dimensional | Relational/context | Cyclic/patterned |
| Event segmentation | High | Moderate | Moderate | Emergent | Relational |
| Chronological emphasis | Strong | Moderate | Moderate | Low | Low |
| Experiential salience | Sequence | Completion | Habituality | Relational | Recurrence/pattern |
5. Cognitive and narrative consequences
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English speakers: narratives emphasize sequential cause and effect; events occupy a linear past–present–future axis.
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Slavic speakers: narratives foreground completion, duration, and the internal temporal profile of events.
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Japanese speakers: narratives integrate habituality, ongoingness, and potentiality; temporality is multi-dimensional.
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Pirahã/Yucatec Maya speakers: narratives foreground relational and contextual timing, not abstract sequencing.
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Amharic speakers: narratives emphasise cyclic or recurring patterns; events are part of structured temporal phases.
Cognition: Temporal construal shapes prediction, memory, planning, and narrative rhythm, tuning speakers to the patterns their language makes salient.
6. Concluding reflection
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Linear, agent-focused temporal worlds
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Aspectually structured event-centric worlds
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Multi-dimensional habitual/potential worlds
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Relational and context-dependent temporal worlds
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Cyclical or phase-patterned worlds
These patterns shape not only what is experienced, but how experience itself is organised.
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